Biology

In this lesson... 

-  What is Biology?
-  Scientific Method
- Steps
- Vocabulary
-  Characteristics of Life
 

What is Biology?
The study of organisms
 

Scientific Method
● Steps 

     ○ Identify a problem  

     ○  State observations about the problem
    ○  Form a hypothesis about the problem
    ○  Design an experiment to test the hypothesis
    ○  Collect data
    ○  Form a conclusion
 

● Vocabulary 

    ○ Observations 

        ■ 5 senses used to gather evidence 

    ○  Hypothesis 

• An educated prediction 
• Testable and predicts an outcome 

    ○  Experiment

         ■ Procedure used to test hypothesis

     ○  Variable 

• A factor in the experiment that is being tested 
• A valid experiment will have one variable  

     ○ Control variables (constants) 

         ■ Factors that are the same for all groups 

      ○ Control group 

• Control is not being tested 
• It is used for comparison

       ○ Other Variables
             ■ Independent Variable 

                  ● Factor that is changed and tested 

              ■ Dependent Variable 

                  ● The factor that is measured or observed 

      ○ Data
            ■ Quantitative data 

                 ● Results in numbers 

             ■ Qualitative data 

                 ● Results in letters 

       ○ Conclusion 

           ■ Inference 

                 ●  Idea or conclusion that is drawn from evidence and reasoning
          ■ Theory
             ●  Hypothesis or a group of hypotheses that have been supported by  repeated testing 

          ■ Law 

              ● Body of observations
 

Characteristics of Life 

● Cell organization 

     ○ Unicellular 

• Entire organism is made up of one single cell 
• Ex: Bacteria or protists 

     ○ Multicellular 

• Made up of many cells 
• Ex: Trees or animals 

● Reproduction 

     ○ Asexual reproduction 

• A single parent organism reproducing by itself 
• Ex: Bacteria 

     ○ Sexual reproduction 

• Two different parent organisms contribute genetic information 
• Involves the combination of male and female sex cells 
• Humans 

● Growth and development
    ○ Ex: Change in height and weight 

        ●  Response to the environment 

        ●  DNA
           ○ Your genetic makeup 

            ● Obtains and uses energy 

    ○ Anabolism
        ■ The process of building up complex substances from simpler substances 

              ● Ex: Building up cells and cellular components 

              ● Photosynthesis 

    ○ Catabolism 

• The process of breaking down complex substances into simpler substances to release energy 
• Ex: Digestion 

● Cellular respiration 

    ○ Metabolism 

• The total of all chemical reactions in an organism 
• Basically anabolism + catabolism = metabolism 

● Homeostasis 

     ○ Stable state of conditions in the body that are necessary for life

     ○ Ex: 

• Body temperature 
• Blood volume 
• pH balance 
• Water balance 

THESE ARE ALL NECESSARY TO LIVING (BIOTIC) ORGANISMS!!!! IF SOMETHING DOES NOT HAVE ALL OF THESE THEN IT IS NOT LIVING (ABIOTIC)!!!!!!!! 

**To view images, please use the PDF version of the notes above**

In this lesson... 

-  The Cell 

-  The Events that Led up to the Cell Theory 

-  Cell Theory 

-  Bacteria vs. Virus
-  Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote
-  Animal Cells
-  Plant Cells
-  Cell Substructures
-  Cell Membrane 

-  Phospholipid Bilayer 

-  Additional Elements/Characteristics 

-  Mitosis and Meiosis
 

The Cell:
●  Smallest and most basic unit of life
●  The Events that Led up to the Cell Theory: 

      -  1665: Robert Hooke 

           -  Observed the remains of dead plant cells 

           -  Observed and named cells 

       -  1675: Anton van Leeuwenhoek
          - First to see cells under a microscope 

       - 1838: Matthias Schleiden 

           - Concluded that plants were made of cells 

       - 1839: Theodor Schwann 

           - Concluded that animals were made of cells 

       - 1855: Rudolf Virchow 

           - Said that cells are made of cells 

● Cell Theory (From Schleiden, Schwann, and Virchow) 

    ○  All living things are made of cells.
   ○  Smallest living unit structure and function of all organisms is the cell.
   ○  All cells arise from the preexisting cells. 

        ■ Discards the idea of Spontaneous Generation (some organisms come from thin air) 

Bacteria vs. Virus:                                                                   Bacteria                                          Virus 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Living                                                                                                  Yes                                                   No   

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Number of Cells                                                                               1                                                   None

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Reproduction                                                                                  Yes                                                   No 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Size                                                                                 0.5-5.0 micrometers (length)    5-300 nanometers 

Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote:                                              Prokaryote                                  Eukaryote 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Examples                                                                                 Bacteria Cell                                  Plant Cell

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Nucleus                                                                                              No                                                  Yes 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Organelles                                                                                        No                                                  Yes 

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Cell Wall Material                                                              Peptidoglycan                                Cellulose

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Ribosomes                                                                                        Yes                                                 Yes 

------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- 

Cell Organization                                                                    Unicellular                              Multicellular

Animal Cells: 

●  Eukaryotic cell   

●  Parts of this cell:      

   ○  Cell membrane 

• Controls what comes in and out of the cell 
• Outer Layer 

• Has a round shape 
• Surrounded by the organelles 
• Controls the cell’s activities 

• Clear, gel-like fluid 
• Surrounds all organelles 

• Bean shaped 
• Has inner membrane 
• Breaks down sugar molecules to create energy 

• Network of folded tubes or membranes 
• Carries proteins and other materials from one part of the cell to another 
• There is a smooth and a rough ER 

• Small bodies floating free or attached to the rough ER 
• Produce proteins 

• Flattened sacs or tubes 
• Receives proteins or other materials from the ER, packages them, and redistributes them

• Fluid filled sacs 
• Storage area for cells 

• Small, round structures 
• Use chemicals to break down large food molecules into smaller ones 
• breaks down old cells 

• Outer layer 
• Rigid, strong, stiff 
• Non-living 
• Protects and supports the cell 

• Controls what comes in and out of the cell 
• Outer Layer 

• Has a round shape 
• Surrounded by the organelles 
• Controls the cell’s activities 

• Clear, gel-like fluid 
• Surrounds all organelles 

• Bean shaped 
• Has inner membrane 
• Breaks down sugar molecules to create energy 

• Network of folded tubes or membranes 
• Carries proteins and other materials from one part of the cell to another 
• There is a smooth and a rough ER 

• Small bodies floating free or attached to the rough ER 
• Produce proteins 

• Flattened sacs or tubes 
• Receives proteins or other materials from the ER, packages them, and redistributes them 

• Fluid filled sacs 
• Storage area for cells 

• Green oval structures
• Usually containing chlorophyll
• Allow photosynthesis to occur

Cell Substructures: 

● Three substructures: 

    ○ Hypertonic 

• More solute in solution than cell 
• Water moves out of cell 
• Cell shrinks (crenation) 
• Examples:
  ● Saltwater
  ● Soda 

     ○ Isotonic 

• Same amount of solute in the solution as there is in the cell 
• Water is in an equilibrium 
• No net change 

     ○ Hypotonic 

• More solute in the cell than in the solution 
• Water goes into the cell and the cell swells up and bursts 

Cell Membrane: 

● Made up of a phospholipid bilayer 

     ○ Several names for it: 

• Semi-permeable membrane 
• Fluid mosaic model 
• Plasma membrane 

● Phospholipid Bilayer 

     ○  Semi-permeable:​ some things can move in and out of the cell membrane freely (oxygen or carbon dioxide), while others cannot (polar and large molecules) 

     ○  Maintains ​homeostasis 

     ○  Made up of two parts: ​Phospholipids and proteins 

● Phospholipid
    ○ Has a phosphate head and two tails (fatty acid chains). 

Additional Elements/Characteristics: 

●  Passive Transport:
   ○  Movement of molecules from a high concentration to a low concentration
   ○  Requires no energy (ATP)
   ○  Examples: 

• Diffusion 
• Osmosis 
• Facilitated transport 

●  Active Transport: 

    ○  Moving low to high concentration
   ○  Requires energy (ATP)
   ○  Against concentration gradient
●  Simple Diffusion
   ○  Going with concentration gradient
   ○  No energy (ATP) needed
   ○  No protein channel required
   ○  Example:
         ■ O2+CO2
●  Osmosis
    ○  Movement of water from a high concentration to a low concentration
    ○  Energy (ATP) not required
    ○  Passive transport
●  Facilitated Transport
    ○  Passive from high to low concentration
    ○  No energy (ATP) needed
    ○  Needs protein channel
●  Endocytosis
    ○  Movement of large molecules into a cell
    ○  Requires energy (ATP)
    ○  Moves from low to high
●  Exocytosis
    ○  Active transport
    ○  Requires energy (ATP)
    ○  Movement of large molecules out of the cell
    ○  Against the concentration gradient (low to high)
 

Mitosis:

Prophase:​ Chromatin begins condensing into chromosomes. The chromatids are joined together by a centromere.

Metaphase:​ the chromosomes line up in the middle of the cell.  

Anaphase:​ chromosomes break at the centromere and sister chromatids move to opposite ends of the cell. 

Telophase:​ A nuclear membrane forms and chromosomes begin to unwind and separate. Cytokinesis:​ The cytoplasm divides and forms two new cells. 

Meiosis is the same thing, but it just ​happens one more time​, resulting in ​four daughter cells instead of two.  

**To view images, please use the PDF version of the notes**

In this lesson... 

 -  Habitat & Levels of Organization
-  Symbiosis
-  Ecological Pyramid
-  Ecological Succession
-  Biochemical Cycle
-  Population
-  Keystone Species
-  Eutrophication
-  Biomagnification
-  Global warming 

Habitat & Levels of Organization: 

● Ecology:
   ○ The study of interactions that take place between organisms and their environment 

● Habitat:
   ○ Place a plant or animal lives 

● Niche:
   ○ An organism’s total way of life 

●  Abiotic factors:
   ○  The nonliving parts of an organism’s environment
   ○  Include air currents, temperature, moisture, light, and soil
   ○  Affect on an organism’s life
●  Biotic factors:
   ○  All the living organisms that inhabit an environment
   ○  Organisms depend on others directly or indirectly for food, shelter, reproduction, or protection
●  Simple levels:
   ○  Atom
   ○  Molecule
   ○  Organelle
   ○  Cell
   ○  Tissue
   ○  Organ
   ○  System
●  Levels of organization:
   ○ Organism/Species
        ■ An individual living thing that is made of cells, uses energy, reproduces, responds, grows, and develops             

    ○ Population 

         ■ A group of organisms, all of the same species, which interbreed and live in the same place at the same time 

    ○ Community
        ■ All the populations of different species that live in the same place at the same time 

    ○ Ecosystem 

         ■ Populations of plants and animals that interact with each other in a given area with the abiotic components of that area (terrestrial or aquatic)

    ○ Biosphere
       ■ The portion of the Earth that supports life 

● Organism groups: 

    ○ Autotrophs 

• A group of organisms that use the sun’s energy to convert water and carbon dioxide into glucose (food) 
• Also called producers 
• Examples:
  ● Plants
  ● Algae 

    ○ Chemotrophs 

• Another form of autotrophs 
• Lack the chloroplast organelle that contains the pigment chlorophyll found in all organisms and some autotrophs which is used for photosynthesis 
• Get energy from inorganic substances 
• Live in places with no sunlight 
• Examples:
  ● Bacteria
  ● Deep sea worms 

    ○ Heterotrophs 

         ■ Organisms that do not make their own food 

             ●  Also called consumers
            ●  Scavengers, herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and decomposers are all heterotrophs
            ●  Examples:
                ○ Rabbits
                ○ Deer
                ○ Mushrooms 

Symbiosis: 

●  The ​relationship between 2 organisms of different species​ that benefit one or both organisms
●  Mutualism
     ○ A symbiotic relationship that benefits both organisms involved 

● Commensalism
    ○ A symbiotic relationship that benefits one organism and the other is not helped or harmed 

● Parasitism
    ○ A symbiotic relationship that benefits one organism and the other is harmed 

Ecological Pyramids:
● Models that show how energy flows through ecosystems 

     ○ Represent trophic levels Pyramid of Energy: 

         ●  10% of energy is passed from one trophic level to the next
        ●  Most of the energy is lost as heat
        ●  Each level represents the amount of energy that is available to that trophic level
        ●  As you move up the pyramid, the ​energy decreases
   

Pyramid of Biomass: 

● Biomass
   ○ The ​total mass of living matter​ at each trophic level 

         ●  As you move up the pyramid, the ​biomass decreases
        ●  Biomass is ​measured in kilograms 

Pyramid of Numbers: 

●  Represents the​ number of organisms present at each trophic level
●  As you move up the pyramid, the ​number of organisms decreases
 

Ecological Succession:
●  Natural or gradual changes in the types of species that live in an area
●  Primary succession (volcanoes or glaciers):
   ○  Lichens that do not need soil to survive grow on rocks
   ○  Mosses grow to hold newly made soil
   ○  Mosses and lichens are known as pioneer species
●  Secondary succession:
   ○  Begins in a place that already has soil and was the home of living organisms
   ○  Occurs faster and has different pioneer species than primary succession
   ○  Example:
        ■ After forest fires 

         ■ Manmade 

● Climax community 

     ○ Stable group of plants and animals that is the end result of the succession process 

Biochemical Cycle: 

●  Natural cycles by which a nutrient moves through the environment
●  Water cycle (hydrological cycle)
    ○ Water is needed for all biochemical reactions in the body 

• Brain consists of 90% water 
• Regulates body temperature 
• Blood consists of 83% water 
• Detoxifies 
• Bone consists of 22% water 

     ○ Transpiration
       ■ The process by which water is carried through tubes (xylem) in the plants from the roots to small pores (stoma) on the underside of leaves, where it evaporates 

● Carbon cycle 

    ○  Organic molecules contain carbon
   ○  There are four organic molecules (macromolecules): 

• Proteins 
• Lipids (fats) 
• Carbs 
• DNA 

     ○  Two processes that cycle carbon:
         ■ Photosynthesis by plants, algae, and cyanobacteria 

               ● Removes carbon dioxide from air and water and produces oxygen and carbohydrates 

          ■ Cellular respiration 

               ●  Returns carbon to the air and oceans as carbon dioxide
              ●  The process of making energy from glucose (sugar) 

● Nitrogen cycle 

    ○  Nitrogen is found in proteins, DNA, and RNA in the human body
   ○  The Earth’s atmosphere contains 78% nitrogen
   ○  Nitrogen fixation:
         ■ Lightning or nitrogen fixing bacteria combine and fix nitrogen with hydrogen to form ammonium which can be used by plants 

Population: 

●  A ​group of organisms of the same species living in a given area
●  Exponential growth​ (makes a J shaped curve)
●  Logistic growth​ (makes an S shaped curve)
●  Carrying capacity:
     ○ The maximum population size that can be supported by available resources 

●  Density dependent factors:
    ○  Biotic factors in the environment that have an increasing effect as population size increases
    ○  Examples:
         ■ Disease
         ■ Competition
         ■ Parasites
●  Density independent factors:
   ○ Abiotic factors in the environment that affect populations regardless of density 

    ○ Examples: 

         ■ Temperature 

         ■ Drought
        ■ Storms 

Keystone Species: 

●  A​ plant or animal that plays a unique and crucial role in the way an ecosystem functions
●  Without keystone species, the ecosystem would be dramatically different, or cease to exist all together
●  Examples:
     ○  African elephants: help maintain the savannah ecosystem as a grassland instead of a woodland or forest
     ○  Hummingbirds: Engage in beneficial interactions and pollinate 

Eutrophication: 

●  When ​lakes, streams, and estuaries are overfertilized causing plants and algae to bloom and eventually die, causing the ecosystem to crash due to lack of oxygen
●  Six stages of the eutrophication process:
   ○  Addition of nitrates
   ○  Growth of plants (algae)
   ○  Death of plants
   ○  Growth of bacteria
   ○  Lack of oxygen
   ○  Suffocation
●  Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
   ○  The rate of oxygen used by the organism in the ecosystem
   ○  Used as an indicator for eutrophication
 

Biomagnification:
●  Also known as “bioamplification,” the process by which s​ubstances become more concentrated in the bodies of consumers as one moves up the food chain (trophic levels)
●  Bioaccumulation
     ○ The process by which substances not readily broken down or excreted can build up and be stored in living tissue, usually fatty tissue. 

●  DDT
   ○  A pesticide that was widely used until being banned in the U.S. in 1972
   ○  Accumulated in living tissue (fatty tissue)
   ○  The high concentration of DDT caused failure of eggs and thinning of shells in birds
●  Other biomagnification/bioaccumulation chemicals: 

   ○ Mercury
  ○ PCBs 

Global warming: 

● Greenhouse gases 

    ○  Gas that is relatively transparent to solar radiation but absorbs and emits in the infrared which is a type of radiation the earth emits
    ○  Examples: 

• Water vapor 
• Carbon dioxide 
• Nitrous oxide 
• Methane 

    ○  Greenhouse gases make the earth warmer by slowing the loss of infrared radiation
   ○  Global warming molecules are:
         ■ Carbon dioxide 

          ■ Nitrous oxide 

          ■ Methane
         ■ PHS 

In this lesson... 

 -  Early ideas about evolution
-  Theories of biological change
-  Theories of geological change
-  Charles Darwin - Theories 

- Natural Selection
- Evidence of Common Ancestry 

- Analogous sources 

Early ideas about evolution: 

● Theories of biological change 

   ○ Linnaeus 

• Classification system from kingdom to species 

   ○ Buffon 

• Species shared ancestors rather than arising separately 

   ○ Darwin 

• More complex forms developed from less complex forms 

   ○ Lamarck 

             ■ Environmental change leads to use or disuse of a structure 

● Theories of geological change 

   ○ Catastrophism 

• Volcanoes, floods, and earthquakes are examples of catastrophic events 
• Once believed responsible for mass extinctions and the formation of all
  landforms 

   ○ Gradualism 

• Canyons carved by rivers show gradual change 
• The idea that changes on earth occurred by small steps over long periods of time

   ○ Uniformitarianism 

• Rock strata demonstrate this geological process 
• Still occur and add up over long periods of time to cause great change 

Charles Darwin: 

● Observed variation among island species 

    ○  Species: Organisms so similar they can reproduce and produce fertile offspring
   ○  Mutations caused differences in physical traits in individuals and populations
   ○  Variation is a difference in a physical trait 

         ■ Example: Galapagos tortoises have long necks and legs in contrast to regular tortoises 

● Realized species could adapt to their environment 

    ○  Species are able to adapt to their environment
   ○  Adaptation is a feature that allows an organism to better survive in its environment
        ■ Can lead to genetic change in a population 

●  Observed fossil and geologic evidence of an ancient earth
    ○  Fossils preserve traces of an organism from the past
    ○  Fossils are links between stages of evolution
●  Natural Selection
     ○  A mechanism by which individuals that have inherited beneficial adaptations produce more offspring on average than other individuals
    ○  Four main principles of natural selection: 

• Variation 
• Overproduction 
• Adaptation 
• Descent with modification 

●  Key insights that led to his theory
     ○ Artificial selection 

         ■ How humans use plant and animal breeds to develop phenotypic traits 

     ○ Heritability 

         ■ The ability of a trait to be passed down 

     ○ Struggle for survival 

          ■ Due to overpopulation and limited resources 

Evidence of Common Ancestry: 

● Fossils
   ○ Provides evidence of evolution 

         ■ In older layers are more primitive than those in upper layers 

● Geography 

     ○ Provides evidence of evolution 

• Island species most closely resemble nearest mainland species 
• Populations can slow variation from one island to another 

● Embryology
    ○ Provides evidence of evolution 

• Identical larvae, different adult body forms  
• Similar embryos, diverse organisms 

● Anatomy 

    ○ Provides evidence of evolution 

       ■ Homologous structures 

            ● Similar in structure but different in function 

       ■ Vestigial structures 

            ● Remnants of organs or structures that had a function in an early ancestor 

● Analogous Structures 

   ○  Not evidence of a recent common ancestor
  ○  Have similar function to homologous structures 

In this lesson... 

-  Gregor Mendel
-  Chromosome
-  Monomers
-  Evidence for DNA
-  Chagraff’s Puzzle
-  Watson and Crick
-  Nucleotide
-  DNA structure
 

Gregor Mendel:
●  Mendel was the father of genetics
●  He studied heredity in ​peas​ because:
   ○  They grew fast
   ○  Had many varieties
   ○  They were small
●  Heredity is how genetic information is transferred to offspring 

Chromosome:
●  Located in the​ nucleus
●  DNA is wrapped around​ the protein histones
 

Monomers:
●  A ​building block
●  Carbohydrate’s ​monomers is ​monosaccharide
●  Building block of ​nucleic acid ​is ​nucleotide
●  Protein​’s monomer is ​amino acid
●  Two types of​ nucleic acid:
○ DNA ○ RNA 

Evidence for DNA: 

●  A ​vaccine is made from dead or weakened bacteria
●  You are given the vaccine and you are ready for the live version
●  Virulent (pathogen): a substance that causes disease or death
●  Bacteria is the only organism that can perform transformation
●  Genetic information​ is transferred through DNA
●  Bacteriophage is a virus that infects bacteria
 

Chagraff’s Puzzle:
 

● Complementary pairs
○ A - T, C - G, T - A, G - C, T - A, C - G 

      ●  Pyrimidines = Cytosine and Thymine
     ●  Purine = Adenine and Guanine

 Watson and Crick:
●  Two men that built the ​first model of DNA
●  They won the Nobel Prize
●  Some scientists say that ​Rosalind Franklin, who was the first person to take a picture of DNA, using an X-ray,​ should have won the Nobel Prize

Nucleotide:
●  Made up of three things:
   ○  A nitrogenous base (a nucleo base)
   ○  A five carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
   ○  A phosphate group (1-3 phosphates)
●  Four nitrogenous bases:
   ○  Adenine (A)
   ○  Cytosine (C)
   ○  Guanine (G)
   ○  Thymine (T) 

DNA structure: 

●  The ​backbone of DNA​ is made up of:
   ○  Phosphate groups
   ○  Sugar groups
●  The ​rings​ consist of ​one oxygen and four carbons
   ○ The fifth carbon atom is attracted to the fourth carbon of the ring 

● The ​bases ​are​ two of the four nitrogenous bases​: 

   ○  Adenine (A)
  ○  Cytosine (C)
  ○  Guanine (G)
  ○  Thymine (T) 

In this lesson... 

-  Water Properties
-  Acids and Bases 

- Macromolecules
 

Water 

Properties:

● Polar
   ○ Water has unequal charged ends 

● Cohesion 

    ○  Attraction between properties of the same substance
   ○  One water molecule bonding to another water molecule
   ○  Example:  Water touching water
● Adhesion 

    ○ Attraction between two different substances 

    ○ Examples: 

        ■ Capillary action 

        ■ Transpiration 

● Surface Tension 

     ○ A film on water caused by cohesion 

     ○ Example: 

         ■ Produces a surface that allows insects to walk on the surface of water 

● Capillary Action 

      ○ Water molecules will “tow” each other along similarly to a thin glass tube 

      ○ Example: 

         ■ Transpiration 

● Transpiration 

     ○ Process in which plants and trees remove water from the soil, and paper towels soak up water 

● Solute
   ○ Substance being dissolved 

    ○ Example: 

        ■ Salt 

● Solvent 

    ○ Substance into which solute dissolves 

    ○ Example: water 

● Buffer 

    ○  Made of a weak acid or base that absorbs additional H+ or OH- ions so that the solution will maintain a stable pH
   ○  Example:
       ■ Baking soda, Tums 

● Indicator
   ○ A substance that changes color in the presence of an acid or base ○ Example: 

        ■ Cabbage juice 

● Organic
    ○ Contains carbon 

● Monomer
    ○ Building blocks of macromolecules 

●  Polymer
    ○ Macromolecules
●  Hydrolysis
    ○ Separates monomers by “adding water” 

● Dehydration Synthesis
     ○ Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water” 

Acids and Bases: 

Acids:
- Taste: sour
- Examples: Hydrochloric Acid,  Acetic Acid

-  Reaction w/ metals Kind of ion: React 

- pH numbers: H+ 0-6.9 

Bases:
- Taste: bitter
- Examples: Acetone, Ammonia

-  Reaction w/ metals Kind of ion: Don’t React

- pH numbers: OH− 7.1-14

Neutral Substances:

- Taste: --
- Examples: water

-  Reaction w/ metals Kind of ion: --

- pH numbers: 7.

Macromolecules: 

●  Organic:​ contains carbon
●  Carbon
    ○ Can form covalent bonds as many as 4 other atoms (elements) 

● Macromolecules (Polymers) 

   ○ Large organic molecules 

● Monomer 

    ○  Building blocks of macromolecules
  ○  Each polymer has a different monomer
 

        Monomer  - Polymer
Monosaccharides - Carbohydrates

Fatty Acids  - Lipids

Amino Acids  - Proteins

Nucleotide - Nucleic Acids

● Dehydration Synthesis (condensation reaction):
   ○ Forms polymers by combining monomers by “removing water” 

● Hydrolysis
   ○ Separates monomers by “adding water” 

● Carbohydrate 

Monomer :  Monosaccharide

Function : Short term energy

Elements : Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Shape :  Ring 

● Monosaccharide
   ○ One sugar unit 

    ○ Examples: 

• Glucose 
• Fructose 
• Galactose 
• Deoxyribose (DNA) 
• Ribose (RNA) 

● Disaccharide 

  ○ 2 sugar units 

  ○ Examples 

• Sucrose (glucose + fructose) 
• Lactose (glucose + galactose) 
• Maltose (glucose + glucose) 

● Polysaccharide
   ○ Many sugar units 

● Types of Carbohydrates: 

Starch : How plants store glucose

Glycogen : How animals store glucose 

Cellulose : Makes up plant cell wall (fiber) 

● Lipids 

Monomer :  Fatty Acids (Triglyceride)

Function : Long term energy, cell membrane

Elements : Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen

Shape :  E-shape 

● Lipid Examples 

   ○ Fats 

   ○ Phospholipids
   ○ Oils
  ○ Steroid hormones 

 ●  Saturated Fats: ​no double bonds (Bad)
●  Unsaturated Fats:​ no double bonds (Good) 

● Protein 

Monomer :  Amino Acids (20 different kinds)

Function : Body Structure (muscles, organs), enzymes

Elements : Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

Shape :  No set shape; Shape determines function 

● Enzymes
  ○ Proteins 

   ○  Speed up chemical reactions and require little energy (ATP)
  ○  Put things together and take them apart 

● Nucleic Acids 

Monomer :  Nucleotide

Function : Contain genetic information

Elements : Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphate 

Shape :  Helix 

● Nucleotide 

    ○  Phosphate group
   ○  Sugar (5 carbon)
   ○  Nitrogenous Base 

• Adenine (A) 
• Thymine (T) 
• Cytosine (C) 
• Guanine (G) 
• Uracil (U)